Abstract
Mycobacterium abscessus is a fast growing Mycobacterium species mainly causing skin and respiratory infections in human. M. abscessus is resistant to numerous drugs, which is a major challenge for the treatment. In this study, we have sequenced the genomes of two clinical M. abscessus strains having rough and smooth morphology, using the single molecule real-time and Illumina HiSeq sequencing technology. In addition, we reported the first comparative methylome profiles of a rough and a smooth M. abscessus clinical strains. The number of N4-methylcytosine (4mC) and N6-methyladenine (6mA) modified bases obtained from smooth phenotype were two-fold and 1.6 fold respectively higher than that of rough phenotype. We have also identified 4 distinct novel motifs in two clinical strains and genes encoding antibiotic-modifying/targeting enzymes and genes associated with intracellular survivability having different methylation patterns. To our knowledge, this is the first report about genome-wide methylation profiles of M. abscessus strains and identification of a natural linear plasmid (15 kb) in this critical pathogen harboring methylated bases. The pan-genome analysis of 25 M. abscessus strains including two clinical strains revealed an open pan genome comprises of 7596 gene clusters. Likewise, structural variation analysis revealed that the genome of rough phenotype strain contains more insertions and deletions than the smooth phenotype and that of the reference strain. A total of 391 single nucleotide variations responsible for the non-synonymous mutations were detected in clinical strains compared to the reference genome. The comparative genomic analysis elucidates the genome plasticity in this emerging pathogen. Furthermore, the detection of genome-wide methylation profiles of M. abscessus clinical strains may provide insight into the significant role of DNA methylation in pathogenicity and drug resistance in this opportunistic pathogen.
- Mycobacterium abscessus
- SMRT sequencing
- comparative genomics
- whole genome sequencing
- methylation
- single nucleotide variation
M. abscessus is a major non-tuberculous Mycobacterium (NTM) species causing pulmonary infections in human. The treatment of this emerging pathogen is a major challenge because it is resistant to most of the effective drugs along with disinfectants (Medjahed et al. 2010; Leung and Olivier 2013) whereas only few antibiotics show bacteriostatic effect (Maurer et al. 2104). Based on phylogenetic analysis of housekeeping genes (rpoB, erythromycin ribosome methyltransferase gene, and macrolide resistance-related gene), M. abscessus is categorized into three subspecies, M. abscessus subsp abscessus, M. abscessus subsp massiliense, and M. abscessus subsp bolletii (Adékambi et al. 2006; Bastian et al. 2011; Macheras et al. 2011). Importantly, M. abscessus subsp. abscessus is a “nightmare” bacterium, more resistant and prevalent than other subspecies (Nessar et al. 2012). Additionally, the clinical features and treatment outcomes are different for patients infected with M. abscessus complex (Koh et al. 2011; Harada et al. 2012). It is very important to understand the drug resistance mechanism and genetic relatedness of M. abscessus clinical isolates at genetic level. The traditional molecular methods like multilocus sequencing typing (MLST), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) are used to determine the genetic relatedness of M. abscessus isolates. However, the uses of these methods are limited to typing of strains within the sub species of M. abscessus. To overcome this limitation, whole-genome sequencing approach can be facilitated for understanding the pathogenicity of this emerging pathogen at the genome level. Ripoll et al. (2009) have sequenced the whole genome of M. abscessus ATCC 19977T strain in 2009. Later on, several research groups have reported the whole-genome sequences of M. abscessus clinical strains (Pang et al. 2013; Sekizuka et al. 2014; Caverly et al. 2016). The second generation sequencing has become a popular technology to sequence the microbial genomes for understating the population structure and identify the single nucleotide variations (SNVs) as well as large-scale deletions in the genome of bacterial pathogens. Similarly, the third generation sequencing technology is also used for sequencing of whole genome and detecting the methylation modification in the genomes (Flusberg et al. 2010). Single molecule real-time sequencing (SMRT) is one of the third generation sequencing technologies that enable to identify N6-methyladenine (6mA), N4-methylcytosine (4mC) and 5-methylcytosine (5mC) modifications in bacterial genomes which facilitates in exploring the epigenetic modification in bacteria. The methylome profile is very important in any bacterial species because DNA methylation is involved in various physiological processes of bacteria. Moreover, DNA methylation process is a part of restriction-modification (R-M) systems which has an important role in bacterial defense mechanism (Vasu and Nagaraja 2013). Notably, methylation protects M. tuberculosis from hypoxia and stress condition (Shell et al. 2013). Recently, SMRT sequencing technology is well adapted in the field of mycobacterial research (Chhotaray et al. 2018) and the technique was used to study the methylome of some mycobacterial species (Zhu et al. 2016; Phelan et al. 2018). Zhu et al. (2016) have reported the methylation of 12 Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) by using SMRT sequencing technology and three DNA methyltransferases (MTases) responsible for m6A modification were identified. Additionally, Phelan et al. (2018) have reported the diversity of methylation in M. tuberculosis and M. africanum by using SMRT sequencing and identified lineage-specific methylated motifs and strain-specific mutations. However, methylome analysis of any NTM has not been reported yet. We sought to assess the utility of SMRT sequencing technology to study the methylome of M. abscessus clinical isolates.
In the current study, we report the complete genome sequences of two M. abscessus clinical strains (having smooth and rough morphology) isolated from the patients who had a pulmonary infection. The comparative genomic studies of the two clinical strains were performed, which shows significant variations among them at genome level. Additionally, this is the first study showing the complete methylome analysis of NTM by using SMRT sequencing technology. We have identified 6mA and 4mC modification in the smooth and rough M. abscessus clinical strains and analyzed the variation in methylation sites in their genomes. Moreover, this is the first report that a 15 kb linear natural plasmid exists in M. abscessus clinical strain and its methylation is reported here.
Materials and Methods
Drug susceptibility testing
The M. abscessus clinical strain GZ002 (MabS) with smooth morphology (Guo et al. 2016) and another clinical stain GZ0 1 (MabR) showing rough morphology were collected from Guangzhou Chest Hospital, China. Drug susceptibility test was performed by the broth microdilution method in 96-well plates as described previously by clinical and laboratory standards institute (CLSI) (Woods et al. 2011). The eleven anti-TB drugs tested, isoniazid, rifampin, streptomycin, ethambutol, levofoxacin, clarithromycin, amikacin, linezolid, clofazimine, and ethionamide were listed in the Supplemental Material, Table S4. The MIC was determined as the lowest concentration of a drug that prevents visible bacterial growth.
Bacterial DNA isolation and whole-genome sequencing
The isolates were grown in Middlebrook 7H9 liquid medium containing 10% oleic acid-albumin-dextrose-catalase (OADC) and 5% glycerol for 5 days and then streaked on 7H10 agar medium. The single colonies were inoculated into 7H9 liquid medium. The genomic DNA was extracted from both clinical isolates by using standard protocols (van Soolingen et al. 2001). Genomic DNA was fragmented, and then 20 kb DNA fragments were taken for preparation of SMRTbell DNA template libraries. DNA fragments were end repaired and ligated with universal hairpin adapters and the subsequent steps were followed as per the manufacture’s instruction to prepare SMRTbell library. The obtained library was sequenced in PacBio RSII SMRT instrument (McCarthy 2010) and HGAP (version 4.0) pipeline was used to assemble PacBio’s reads (Chin et al. 2013). The validation of the quality of the assembly and final genome sequence was determined by using the Quiver consensus algorithm (Chin et al. 2016). Finally, the genome was circularized by trimming the ends of assembled sequences. The genomes of two strains were re-sequenced by using Illumina HiSeq to resolve the errors found during SMRT sequencing. The paired-end libraries were prepared from the genomic DNA and were sequenced by Illumina HiSeq instrument (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). The details of the library preparation and bioinformatics analysis are mentioned in the supplementary material (Supplementary sheet 1). The Illumina raw reads were trimmed at the percentage of bases with Phred value greater than 20 (less than 1% probability of error). The alignment software BWA (version 0.7.12) was used to align the clean data generated from MabS and MabR to the M. abscessus ATCC 19977T reference strain genome sequence (NC_010397.1) (Li and Durbin 2009). The alignment result was corrected by using Picard (https://broadinstitute.github.io/picard/) and GATK (DePristo et al. 2011). The statistics of raw data generated from Illumina and SMRT sequencing are mentioned in the Table S5-8 and Table S9-10 respectivly.
The non-coding RNAs like rRNA and tRNA were predicted by RNAmmer (version 1.2) (Lagesen et al. 2007), tRNAscan-SE (version 1.3.1) (Lowe and Chan 2016) respectively whereas mapping Rfam (version 12.2) (Nawrocki et al. 2015) method was applied to predict other non-coding RNAs. Prodigal (version 3.02, prokaryote) is used for the prediction of protein-coding genes in MabS and MabR genomes (Hyatt et al. 2010). The coding genes were annotated with the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) nr database by Diamond (Buchfink et al. 2014). The functional annotation of genes was performed by GO (Gene Ontology) database (Harris et al. 2004), and the KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) database was used for pathways annotation (Kanehisa and Goto 2000). The genes encoding proteins were classified on functional categories through a COG (Clusters of Orthologous Groups) database (Tatusov et al. 2003). The circos (version 0.69) software was used to display genome sequence in circular plot. In this study, we have identified a linear plasmid from MabS which was confirmed by gelelectrophoresis. The sequence of the identified plasmid was BLASTed in NCBI to check the percentage of identity with other strain of M. abscessus. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) elements were searched using the CRISPRfinder web tool (Grissa et al. 2007).
Comparative genomics
For the identification of insertion or deletion in the respective genomes, the sequences of MabR (CP034191), MabS (CP034181), and M. abscessus reference genome (NC_010397.1) were aligned using BLAST Ring Image Generator (BRIG v0.95 and NCBI BLAST+) with upper and lower threshold value 90% and 70%, respectively (Alikhan et al. 2011). To visualize the insertions and deletions in MabR (CP034191) and MabS (CP034181), the genomes were aligned with the reference genome of M. abscessus ATCC 19977T strain (NC_010397.1). Similarly, MabR (CP034191) was used as a reference to align and visualize the insertions and deletions in MabS with respect to MabR.
The pan-genome analysis was performed by using the predicted proteome of 25 M. abscessus strains. In order to explore the pan-genome of M. abscessus, the bacterial pan-genome analysis (BPGA) pipeline (version 1.3) was used (Chaudhari et al. 2016). BPGA performed pre-processing step to prepare sequence data and then clustering was done by using USEARCH (Edgar 2010) with a default threshold value of 50% sequence identity. The clustered output was analyzed to obtain gene presence/absence binary matrix file (pan-matrix) which was subsequently used for pan-genome profile calculations with a total of 20 iterations as well as pan-genome based phylogeny. To perform core genome-based phylogenetic analysis, core proteins of all M. abscessus genomes were extracted. Concatenated amino acid sequences of the core proteome were aligned using MUSCLE (Edgar 2004), and a phylogenetic tree was constructed using the Neighbor Joining method (Saitou and Nei 1987). The phylogenetic trees were annotated using the interactive tree of life (iTOL) version 3 (Letunic and Bork 2016).
To detect the SNV at the genome level, the reads of each strain were mapped against the reference strain genome (NC_010397.1) using Samtools (version 1.1) (Li et al. 2009) and the UnifiedGenotyper module from GATK (DePristo et al. 2011). Before SNV analysis, mapping results were processed to remove duplication by picard (V1.119) (https://broadinstitute.github.io/picard/). SNVs were filleted based on the parameters like the minimum SNV quality score 10 and minimum read depth 10×. The detected mutations were annotated by Annovar software (Wang et al. 2010). The reliability of the detected SNV was evaluated by summarizing the number of reads of each SNV site in every sample along with the distance of the adjacent SNV sites. Based on the information of annotated gene provided in the database, the software correlated the mutation information with the gene information to achieve the interpretation of the mutation site.
Genome wide base modification and motif analysis
The detection of genome wide base modification was performed by SMRTlink. Base modification analysis was performed based on normalization of the kinetics values. Inter pulse duration (IPD); the primary metric was used for base modification analysis. The quality value (QV) score threshold was set at 50 for genome-wide methylation pattern analysis. Pacific Bioscience’s SMRTPortal was used for identification of the position of modified bases (Feng et al. 2013) and sequences of methylated motifs were identified as previously described (Furuta et al. 2014). The data obtained from SMRT sequencing analysis containing each motif’s methylation site, methylation score, type of methylation, and all locations of a discovered motif (File Xls S2).
Plasmid extraction From MabS and MabR strain
Briefly, 15 mL of MabS and MabR strains were grown to 1.0 at OD600. The bacterial culture was then centrifuged at 3800× g for 10 min and pellet was resuspended in 1 mL of TE buffer. 100 μL of lysozyme (10 mg/mL) and 100 μL proteinase K (200 mg/mL) was added and incubated in a shaker at 37°, 180 rpm, for 24 hr. The mixture was vigorously vertexed and pellet down. The plasmid was extracted using Maogen Kit (HiPure Plasmid Maxi Kit).
Data availability
All sequence data were deposited in the NCBI database. Accession numbers of genome sequences are CP034181 for M. abscessus GZ002 (MabS) and CP034191 for M. abscessus GZ0 1 (MabR) and accession number of the pMabS_GZ002 plasmid is CP034180. The raw data of MabS and MabR were submitted in NCBI having SRA accession number PRJNA504433 and PRJNA495001 respectively. Supplementary sheet 1 contains details of Illumina sequencing library preparations and bioinformatics analysis of sequencing data. Figure S1 contains the KEGG classification annotation statistics of MabS and MabR whereas Figure S2 provides the COG classification annotation statistics of MabS and MabR. Figure S3 and Figure S4 display the pan-genome and core genome phylogeny of 25 complete genome sequences of M. abscessus species respectively. Figure S5 provides the gelelectrophoresis of plasmids extracted from M. abscessus clinical strains. Figure S6 contains the maps representing the circular visualization of insertions and deletions in MabR (CP034191) and MabS (CP034181). Table S1 provides the annotations and related data for linear plasmid pMabS_GZ002 gene. Table S2 contains the information about the variation in methylation sites in the genes of interest between two clinical strains of M. abscessus. Table S3.1, Table S3.2, and Table S3.2, give the information about the gene content in the inserted and deleted regions Reference vs. MabR, Reference vs. MabS, MabS vs. MabR, respectively. Table S4 contains the information about the drug susceptibility of M. abscessus isolates. Table S5 contains statistics of PF data generated by Illumina sequencing. Table S6 provides the statistics of clean data after quality control. Table S7 contains the proportion of statistics of the clean data compared to PF data after quality control. Table S8 gaves the genome alignment statistics of two M. abscessus clinical strains obtained from Illumina sequencing. Table S9 gives the raw reads statistics of two of M. abscessus clinical strains generated from SMRT sequencing. Table S10 provides the genome assembly statistics of two M. abscessus clinical strains obtained from SMRT sequencing. File Xls S1 contains result of structural variation analysis. File Xls S2 gives the information about the identified SNVs, each motif’s methylation site, methylation score, type of methylation, and all locations of discovered motifs in both strains, motif information of pMabS_GZ002 plasmid, identified methyltransferase in both strains. File Xls S3 contains the statistics of the 25 available complete genomes of M. abscessus used for pan-genome analysis. File Xls S4 privids the statistics number of accessory genes, unique genes as well as exclusively absent genes determined among the M. abscessus species. MabS.h5 and MabR.h5 contain the raw files of methylome analysis of MabS and MabR, respectively. Supplemental material available at figshare: https://doi.org/10.25387/g3.10251044.
Results
Drug susceptibility testing
The two M. abscessus clinical isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using the broth microdilution method as described previously (Woods et al. 2011). The result of antibiotic susceptibility test showed that resistance level of rough strain to clofazimine was a little more than that of the smooth strain but we didn’t observe colony morphology affect the susceptibilities of M. abscessus to other anti-TB drugs (Table S4).
Genome assembly and annotation
The genomes of two M. abscessus clinical strains were first sequenced by SMRT sequencing technology (Flusberg et al. 2010) then re-sequenced by using Illumina HiSeq sequencing. The high quality reads having Phred quality score of 20 were obtained from sequencing data of both clinical strains. After the multiple filtering of raw data, a total of 31184792 and 14125608 numbers of reads obtained from MabS and MabR, respectively were mapped to the reference genome (Table 1). The average length of sequence reads was 148.72 bp for both strains. The genomes were circularized; the size of MabS genome is 5067231 bp in length, with an average G+C content of 64.41% (Figure 1, Table 1) whereas the genome size of MabR is 5075529 bp with an average G+C content of 64.70% (Figure 1). There are 4963 and 5001 protein-coding genes were identified in MabS and MabR, respectively. Moreover, 9 rRNAs and 46 tRNAs were predicted for both assembled genomes (Table 1). In addition, 37 other non-coding RNAs were identified form MabR and MabS (Table 1), respectively. The genes of both strains were categorized into six groups in the KEGG database (Figure S1). The distribution of functional COG categories was grouped into 21 categories for both strains (Figure S2).
Circular chromosome maps for MabR (A) and MabS (B), generated by using circos (version 0.69) software. The circular plot has five levels. From outside to inside, the first is size of chromosome indicated in kb, the (second) inner black histogram represents the is G+C content, the third is positive strand genes (marked in red), the fourth is negative strand genes (marked in green), the fifth is positive strand ncRNA (marked in blue), the sixth is negative strand ncRNA (marked in purple) and the seventh shows long repeats (>100bp).
Interestingly, a 15203 bp linear plasmid was identified in MabS having G+C content of 67.55% and 15 protein coding genes were found in the plasmid (Table S1). For further confirmation, the plasmid was extracted from the MabS strain and the gel electrophoresis result showed a band at around 15 kb (Figure S5). We designated this plasmid as pMabS_GZ002. Notably, plasmid carries a mercury resistance operon and putative resolvase/invertase/recombinase similar to M. abscessus ATCC 19977T plasmid pMAB23. However, further analysis may be needed to support the plasmid linearity. We didn’t find any CRISPR elements in the two genomes.
Comparative genomics study
The two annotated genomes were compared with the M. abscessus reference genome (NC_010397.1) to study the structural variations among the respective genomes. The result of this analysis revealed that a 60 bp insertion was found in the genome of MabS compared with M. abscessus reference genome (File Xls S1, Table S3.1-3.3, and Figure S6). Interestingly, 13 insertions and 8 deletions were identified in the genome of MabR with respect to the reference genome. We compared the genomes of both clinical isolates which showed 7 insertions and 10 deletions in the genome of MabR (File Xls S1, Table S3.1-3.3, and Figure S6). This indicates that MabS and M. abscessus reference genome (NC_010397.1) are similar to each other.
Pan-genome analysis was performed by using the predicted protein sequences of the 25 strains M. abscessus. The core genes were defined as homologous genes that are present in all strains. The specific or unique genes have obtained that present in only one of the strains that are refered as “strain-specific” whereas the sum of all genes is called pan genes (pan-genome). The statistics of the 25 available complete genomes such as G+C contents, genome sizes, strain names, Biosample number, Bioproject number, etc. are provided in File Xls S3. The pan-genome of M. abscessus species was found to comprise of 7596 protein clusters and the number of core protein clusters was found to be 3585. The core/pan ratio was calculated as 0.47195 which projected that core form ∼47.195% of the pan-genome size. The expansion parameter ’b’ was calculated to be 0.150554, i.e., somewhat greater than zero, which indicates that the pan-genome of this species retains the ability to accommodate more unique genes into its gene pool and thus increase the size of its pan-genome. Therefore, the pan-genome although is now open but may be closed soon because availability of more complete genomes of this species in the future so the nature of its pan-genome (open or close) can be elucidated with greater confidence to get a realistic picture. This trend is also visible in the pan-core plot (Figure 2). The number of accessory genes, unique genes as well as exclusively absent genes were also determined (File Xls S4). MabR strain contributed total 20 unique genes toward the pan-genome while the MabS strain contributed total 16 unique genes. Also, MabR seems to lack fifty-eight genes which are found in other 24 genomes; meanwhile, a total of two genes was exclusively absent in MabS strain. Pan-phylogeny revealed that MabR strain is evolutionarily related to strain FLAC046 from USA (Figure S3). Further, the clade of these two strains is linked to another clade containing strain NOV0213 (Russia), FLAC029 (USA) and FLAC028 (USA). However, the core-phylogeny projected that MabR is evolutionary closest to G220 previously isolated from China, followed by NOV0213 isolated from Russia (Figure S4). On the other hand, MabS is evolutionary closest to strain 7C isolated previously from Malaysia, followed by FLAC013 strain from the USA. These evolutionary relationships of MabS with related strains are corroborated by the core genome phylogeny. The results of this analysis showed that a high level of genomic diversity was evident in this species, as expected due to the open nature of the pan-genome.
Prediction of M. abscessus pan- and core-genome. The exponential and power-fit models of core and pan genes are shown in the plot by purple and green lines, respectively. The relevant equations used for computing core and pan-genome are also included for visualization. The analysis (plots) indicated that the M. abscessus (25) species having an open pan genome which comprises of 7596 gene clusters.
We have identified 1358 and 8 SNVs in MabR and MabS respectively, based on mapping of sequence reads of each strain to the reference strain. There are 385 nsSNVs and 752 synonymous SNVs (sSNVs) were detected in MabR strain (Table 3). Importantly, two genes were observed as truncated (MAB_2069 and MAB_2074) and the other two genes have lost the stop codon (MAB_0280 and MAB_2073) due to SNV in MabR. Out of 8 SNVs, 6 nsSNVs and only one (MAB_0280) sSNV found in MabS strain where as SNV causes the lost of a stop codon in one gene but no gene found to be truncated due to SNV (File Xls S2).
In order to investigate the nsSNVs detected in the genes of MabR, we specially focused on the majority of genes harboring the nsSNVs (File Xls S2). There are 62, 41, 22 and 20 nsSNVs were present within the MAB_2100, MAB_2073, MAB_2099, and MAB_2074 respectively. The highest number of nsSNV was found in MAB_2100 encoding putative plasmid replication initiator protein. In addition, nsSNVs were found within genes encoding putative monooxygenase, hypothetical cell division FtsK/SpoIIIE protein, bacteriophage protein, hypothetical protein, recombinase, and transcriptional regulator. We have identified 4 genes (MAB_0280, MAB_1137c, MAB_2106c, and MAB_2537c) containing nsSNVs which are common to both clinical strains (Table 3).
Genome wide methylome analysis of two M. abscessus clinical strains
SMRT sequencing technology enables to detect methylation modification in the genome. This facilitated us to analyze and determine the positions of modified DNA bases in two respective clinical strains of M. abscessus having smooth and rough colony morphology, respectively. The 5mC modifications are not detected because DNA was not treated with Tet1 oxidation prior to sequencing. Both M. abscessus strains possessed more 4mC type of base modification than m6A modification. Totals of 6381 (88.6%) and 817 (11.3%) modified bases having a QV score of 50 were detected as 4mC and 6mA respectively, in MabS.
One putative motif “VSGGCCKVNB” was identified for m4C type of modification in MabS but we didn’t get any motif for 6mA type modification. Additionally, two motifs (“VVGGCCB” and “GTNNBVNB”) were detected for “modified_base” which indicates that methylation was expected but below the significance threshold during the initial kinetics analysis (Table 4). In the case of MabR, we found 2960 (85%) 4mC and 496 (14%) 6mA methylated bases with a QV score 50. Interestingly, the total number of methylated bases detected in MabS was considerably two-fold higher than that of MabR. In contrast to MabS, only one motif “VVGGCCKS” was identified for “modified_base” but we didn’t find any specific motifs for 6mA and 4mC type of modification in MabR (Table 4). Additionally, we explored the genome wide variation in methylome between both M. abscessus clinical strains. There were 1807 common modified base sites detected in the genomes of both strains. Furthermore, 19897 and 5674 modified base sites were identified that are specific to MabS and MabR, respectively (Figure 3). We have detected 34 4mC methylated bases in the plasmid (pMabS_GZ002) obtained from MabS (File Xls S2). However, we didn’t find any 6mA methylated bases in the plasmid. Furthermore, there are 95 and 96 MTases identified in smooth and rough strain, respectively by genome analysis (File Xls S2).
The Venn diagram represents the comparison of DNA modified bases in MabS and MabR strain which shows the MabS strain is having more modified bases (19897) than MabR strain (5674) whereas 1807 detected DNA modified bases are common to both strains.
Association of methylome with M. abscessus antibiotic resistance, intracellular survival and Glyco-Peptido-Lipids (GPLs) locus
Methylation modifications were identified in the genes encoding antibiotic target-modifying enzymes and intracellular survival factors in both M. abscessus clinical strains. Our study identified 4 of 5 genes encoding antibiotic-modifying enzymes having methylation modification. Interestingly, it was found that position of methylation site (m4C) in MAB_2297 [erm (41)] gene encoding erythromycin ribosome methylase is different in both the clinical strains where as one m4C methylation site was detected in each MAB_2385 (3′’-O-phosphotransferase) and MAB_2875 (β-lactamase) gene of MabS but there is no such type of methylation found in MabR (Table S2). In addition, MAB_1496c encoding flavin monooxygenase containing one m4C modification site in MabR in contrast to MabS.
The actual molecular mechanisms of intracellular survival of M. abscessus remain unclear. However, some genes were identified that are associated with intra-amoebal and/or intra-macrophage survival by transposon library screening (Laencina et al. 2018). Here, we have identified the genes associated with intracellular survival have methylation modifications (m4C and m6A). The study of Laencina et al. (2018) has shown that esx-4 genes of M. abscessus containing transposon insertion which leads to reduced intra-amoebal replication. Our methylome study showed that the position of the methylation sites in esx-4 genes varies in both clinical strains. Importantly, transposon insertion in MAB_3757 gene of esx-4 locus showed a 75% reduction in intra-amoebal replication has 3 methylation sites identified in MabS in contrast to MabR site (Table S2). Similarly, MAB_0628 gene encoding EspI - secretion protein is showing a severe defect in intra-amoebal survival has 8 methylation sites in MabS where as one common methylation site found in both strains (Table S2). Furthermore, we have identified methylation sites in two genes of GPLs locus in both clinical strains; these genes were down regulated in rough variant compared to smooth variant strain in the previous study (Pawlik et al. 2013). The MAB_4099c gene of this locus which encodes non-ribosomal peptide synthetase has 25 and 4 methylation sites in MabS and MabR respectively whereas only one methylation site found common to both strains. Similarly, 9 and 6 methylation sites were detected in the MAB_4098c gene of GPLs locus in MabS and MabR (Table S2).
Discussion
Whole genome sequencing approach followed by the comparative genomic analysis has provided useful insights into the genome dynamics of M. abscessus species. In this study, the genetic variations in M. abscessus clinical strains were explored. We believe this is the first study to analyze the respective methylomes of M. abscessus clinical strains. The genetic information of M. abscessus is necessary for understanding its complex lifestyle in natural conditions. The genome of this pathogen is containing a large number of genes encoding antibiotic-target-modifying enzymes responsible for intrinsic resistance to a wide range of antibiotics as well as genes associated with intracellular survivability and parasitism (Ripoll et al. 2009; Luthra et al. 2018). Additionally, M. abscessus exhibits two morphological characteristics like smooth phenotype which expresses glycopeptidolipid (GPL) on its cell wall and rough phenotype without GPL expression (Pawlik et al. 2013). The virulence potential of rough morphology variant is more than smooth variant whereas rough variant has failed to form biofilm but smooth variant exhibits this feature (Howard et al. 2006; Catherinot et al. 2009). In our study, we didn’t find any correlation between colony morphology and drug resistance in M. abscessus like other studies. This may indicate that the association between drug susceptibility and colony morphology is region specific. Therefore, it is important to explore the genetic composition of two phenotype variants of M. abscessus. In this study, we sequenced and analyzed the genomes of MabS and MabR strains along with their genome-wide methylation profile. The sequencing result showed that the genome length of MabR (5075529 bp) is a little longer than that of MabS (5067231 bp) whereas 5001 and 4963 coding genes are found in MabR and MabS respectively. This variation may be due to recombination and/or metabolic adaptations in M. abscessus clinical isolates. The structural variation analysis revealed that the genome of MabR varies from MabS and reference stain genomes. There are 13 insertions and 8 deletions found in the different location in the genome of MabR with respect to the reference strain. On the other hand, only one insertion was identified in MabS genome when compared with the reference strain. Interestingly, the divergence was observed in MabR, 7 insertions and 10 deletions in comparison to MabS. Therefore, M. abscessus genome is not conservative which shows a continuation of additional genetic material transfer in this species.
The ratio of core/pan was calculated as 0.47195 which shows that the core genome is the ∼47.195% of the pan-genome. This indicates M. abscessus had an open pan-genome which will continue to receive new genes. This might be speculated that horizontal gene transfer had a crucial role in the evolution of M. abscessus species acquiring additional genetic material. Isolates from different geographical locations of the world i.e., from China to USA, Malaysia, and Russia clustered together thus indicating the global dissemination of M. abscessus. Pan-genome phylogeny (Figure S3) provides a higher resolution to distinguish between the strains compared to the core phylogeny, as the pan-genome separated closely related strains easily, which was somewhat evolutionary close in the core genome. The variation in genome size and protein coding genes in M. abscessus clinical strains make important morphological and physiological differences between the strains and leads to more genetic diversity observed in the natural environment.
In this study, we identified a range of SNVs by comparing the two clinical strains against the reference strain ATCC 19977T. It was observed that MabR harbored more SNVs than MabS, indicating the existence of extensive genomic modifications in MabR. Notably, 26 SNVs were detected in the inter-genic regions of MabR whereas no SNVs were found in these regions of MabS. We have identified nsSNVs within the MAB_1137c and MAB_2106c common to both strains encoding membrane protein, MmpL family and lipoprotein LppL respectively. The MmpL family proteins and lipoprotein LppL play a major role in mycobacterial virulence and host-pathogen interaction, respectively (Sutcliffe and Harrington 2004; Bernut et al. 2016). This may be presumed that the genes carrying the SNVs may cause the alternation of characteristics of this NTM. Further study is needed to explore the role of the genes carrying nsSNVs by site directed mutational analysis which will help to understand the alternation overall phenotype, antibiotic resistance mechanism in M. abscessus.
The CRISPR/CRISPR-associated (Cas) elements act as a bacterial defense system which recognizes the foreign invaders (viruses and plasmid) and inactivate them (Wiedenheft et al. 2012). There were no CRISPRs elements identified in any clinical M. abscessus strain as shown in a previous study (Wee et al. 2017). The other species of mycobacteria like M. tuberculosis CCDC5079 and M. africanum GM041182 have 8 and 7 predicted CRISPRs, respectively (Wee et al. 2017). It is possible that lack of CRISPR associated defense system in M. abscessus causes the genome insertion which is shown in our study and other related studies (Davidson et al. 2014).
One of the findings of our study is the identification of 15210 bp linear natural plasmid (pMabS_GZ002) in MabS but not in MabR whereas a circular plasmid was detected in M. abscessus ATCC 19977T reference strain (Ripoll et al. 2009). The pMabS_GZ002 plasmid encodes putative resolvase/invertase/recombinase, relaxase and mer operon that may be involved in conjugation, metabolism process, and resistance to organo-mercury compounds as well as the exchange of genetic material may occur either directly or indirectly with other mycobacteria species. However, there is no study reported about the role of linear plasmid in genetic exchanges in M. abscessus, so it is important to elucidate the conjugative ability of this mycobacterial linear plasmid in this species of mycobacteria. Moreover, 4mC methylated bases were detected in the plasmid pMabS_GZ002 in this study which is the first report about the mycobacterial natural plasmid harbored methylated bases. The native plasmid doesn’t contain any putative DNA methyltransferase, so the bases methylated in the plasmid are probably by the DNA methyltransferase encoded in the genome. Previous studies reported the circular plasmid in M. abescessus (Ripoll et al. 2009; Davidson et al. 2014; Leão et al. 2013) but to our best knowledge no linear plasmid identified in this NTM species before. Further study is required to determine the existing role of this plasmid in M. abscessus isolates which can be used as an epidemiological marker. Despite confirmation through assembly and gel electrophoresis, additional analysis may be required to confirm that the plasmid isolated from MabS strain has linear conformation.
This study also describes the first report of complete methylome analysis of two M. abscessus clinical isolates (smooth and rough phenotype) using SMRT sequencing technology. The genome of MabS was found to be more highly methylated than MabR, around two-fold higher. The identified methylated modifications may protect the genome from damage and regulate the target gene expression. It was found that 4mC modification was higher than that of 6mA in both M. abscessus isolates. Previously, it was reported that 6mA modification type was found to be higher in 12 Mycobacterium tuberculosis complexes (MTBC) (Zhu et al. 2016). Though these two mycobacterial species have higher G+C contents, their methylation patterns were very different. The difference in methylation pattern might be playing a crucial role in the virulence potential of both strains as a previous report showed that rough phenotype variant is more virulent than smooth variant (Catherinot et al. 2009). However, our study didn’t focus on global gene expression as well as virulence property of both clinical strains, so it is important to explore correlation between methylome and virulence property of these clinical strains reported here. Interestingly, it was found that the MabS has more specific modified bases in the genome than MabR whereas 1807 modified bases detected that common to both clinical strains (Figure 3). We identified three methylated motifs “VVGGCCB”, “VSGGCCKVNB” and “GTNNBVNB” in MabS strain whereas only one motif “VVGGCCKS” detected in rough strain. The motifs identified in theses strains were different from other mycobacterial species (Zhu et al. 2016), which indicates DNA methylation patterns are species-specific and even strain-specific.
The important findings of our study are the identification of methylation variation in M. abscessus genes encoding antibiotic-modifying/targeting enzymes and genes responsible for intracellular survival (Table S2). It was observed that the genes encoding antibiotic-modifying/targeting enzymes in MabS have higher rates of methylation modification than that in MabR (Table S2), which may indicate that regulation of their expression is different in both strains. Recently, Laencina et al. (2018) reported the importance of ESX-4 locus in M. abscessus and elucidated their vital role in intracellular survival and pathogenic potential. it was observed that most of the genes of this locus have methylation sites at different positions and some genes (MAB_3757 and MAB_0628) are highly methylated in MabS whereas we didn’t get such methylation sites in those particular genes in MabR (Table S2). The previous study has shown that down regulation of the msp1-msp2-gap operon (GPL locus) in three rough variants compared to in a smooth variant (Pawlik et al. 2013). This encouraged us to investigate the variation in methylation in this operon in both clinical isolates. We observed that msp1 and msp2 are more methylated in MabS than in MabR but we didn’t find any modification in gap gene. The finding suggests that difference in methylation pattern in GPL locus might be responsible for differential expression of msp1and msp2 genes in both clinical isolates. However, future study needs to focus on the correlation between methylome and persistent potential as well as virulence of M. abscessus.
Additionally, genome analysis of both smooth and rough phenotypes identified 95 and 96 MTases respectively. Despite we reported putative methylation motifs of smooth and rough phenotype in this study, the function of these MTases is not clear along with their recognition sites in both M. abscessus clinical strains. The epigenetic regulation of global gene expression in M. abscessus is not studied so far whereas it has been reported that DNA methylation facilitates M. tuberculosis for survival in hypoxia and a stress condition during infections (Shell et al. 2013). Moreover, several research groups reported the role of methylome and MTases in different processes in bacteria such as to survive during antibiotics stress, transportation of ion, host adaptation, environmental and physiological stresses tolerance (Srikhanta et al. 2005; Fang et al. 2012; Srikhanta et al. 2009). As we found the variation in methylome profile in both clinical strains, there is a possibility of MTases activity is also different in both strains which need to be studied. We suggest that that MTases might have an important role in virulence, and different environmental stress conditions to protect M. abscessus. However, there is not any study report which indicated the role of methylome in this species. Therefore, further study is required to explore the role of methylome in M. abscessus.
In conclusion, we have detected and analyzed the genome-wide methylomes of two M. abscessus clinical isolates by using SMRT DNA sequencing technology. It was observed that the methylation profiles of both strains were different. The comparative genomic study has shown that both strains have variation in the genome level. This study also provides a comparison of genome polymorphism between two clinical strains of M. abscessus. Many key mutations were identified in the important genes that may play a crucial role in tolerance of antibiotic and environmental stress which need to further study. The results of our study raised several questions regarding the functions and importance of methylation sites at genome levels along with the significant role of individual DNA MTases in M. abscessus. Our study will provide a better understanding of the impact of methylation on M. abscessus virulence and evolution. Furthermore, M. abscessus methylome can be considered as a target for alternative strategy to increase the antibiotic efficacy against this emerging pathogen.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Number 81973372), “National Mega-project of China for Main Infectious Diseases (Grant Number: 2017ZX10302301-003-002), “Chinese Academy of Sciences Grants” (Grant Number: YJKYYQ20170036 and 154144KYSB20190005) and “Science and Technology Department of Guangdong Province (Grant Number 2017A020212004 and 2019B110233003)”. This was also partially supported by the “National Mega-project of China for Innovative Drugs” (Grant Number: 2019ZX09721001-003-003), “Special Funds for Economic Development of Marine Economy of Guangdong Province” (Grant Number: GDME-2018C003), and “Key Project Grant” (Grant Number: SKLRD2016ZJ003) from the State Key Lab of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University. T.Z. received support “Science and Technology Innovation Leader of Guangdong Province (Grant Number: 2016TX03R095)”. We thank to CAS-TWAS President’s PhD Fellowship Program (to C.C and M.M.I) and UCAS PhD Fellowship Program (to H.M.A.H.) for International Students. G.S. received the support of Guangzhou Development Zone for Postdoc Fellowship and the project of President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) for Postdoc Fellowship from the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Footnotes
Supplemental material available at figshare: https://doi.org/10.25387/g3.10251044.
Communicating editor: J. Ross-Ibarra
- Received September 9, 2019.
- Accepted October 28, 2019.
- Copyright © 2020 Chhotaray et al.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
